Pakistan’s canal-based irrigation system ranks among the oldest and largest integrated water networks in the world, forming the backbone of its agrarian economy.
Its origins date back centuries, when the Shah Jahan commissioned the Upper Bari Doab Canal in the 17th century to carry water from the Ravi River to Lahore. Subsequent enhancements under Maharaja Ranjit Singh and further expansion during British colonial rule transformed Punjab into the subcontinent’s agricultural heartland. By the mid-20th century, an extensive canal network irrigated vast tracts of fertile land, supported by a system of headworks regulating river flows.However, the partition of British India in 1947 dramatically altered this arrangement. Under the Radcliffe Award, critical headworks controlling canal waters were allocated to India, despite serving lands that became part of Pakistan. This geographical and administrative division of water infrastructure created an immediate and severe vulnerability for the newly formed state of Pakistan.
Within months of independence, India halted the flow of water into Pakistani canals, triggering an acute agricultural crisis. For a period, Pakistan was compelled to negotiate and even pay for water originating from rivers that naturally flowed into its territory. Although temporary arrangements were reached through negotiations between Liaquat Ali Khan and Jawaharlal Nehru, the fundamental issue of control over water sources remained unresolved.This impasse eventually led to the signing of the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960, brokered by the World Bank. The treaty divided the Indus basin rivers between the two countries: Pakistan received rights over the western rivers; Indus, Jhelum, and Chenabwhile India retained control over the eastern rivers. At the time, the agreement was widely regarded as a pragmatic and innovative solution, particularly given the geopolitical tensions of the Cold War era.
For several decades, the treaty functioned as a rare example of sustained cooperation between two rival states. The Permanent Indus Commission, established under the treaty, facilitated data sharing and dispute resolution. However, by the late 1980s, concerns began to emerge in Pakistan regarding India’s activities on the western rivers.As the upper riparian state, India possesses a geographical advantage that allows it to influence the flow of rivers entering Pakistan. Over time, India initiated the construction of dams, hydroelectric projects, and water storage facilities on the western rivers. Among the most contentious projects have been the Baglihar Dam and the Kishanganga Dam. Pakistan has repeatedly raised objections, arguing that such developments alter downstream water flows and violate the spirit, if not the letter, of the treaty.
These projects, Pakistan contends, have reduced the timing and volume of water flows critical for irrigation, particularly during key sowing seasons. While India maintains that its projects comply with treaty provisions allowing limited use of western river waters for non-consumptive purposes, the cumulative impact has heightened mistrust.International water law emphasizes the principle of equitable and reasonable utilization, which requires riparian states to use shared water resources without causing significant harm to others. Critics argue that India’s expanding infrastructure on the western rivers challenges this principle, potentially undermining Pakistan’s water security and agricultural sustainability. In recent years, political rhetoric has further intensified the issue. In 2016, following heightened tensions between the two countries, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi declared that “blood and water cannot flow together,” signaling a shift toward a more assertive stance on water sharing. Subsequent statements and policy discussions in India have included calls to maximize utilization of Indus waters, raising concerns in Pakistan about the potential weaponization of water resources.The situation escalated further after the Pahalgam incident in April 2025, after which India placed the Indus Waters Treaty in abeyance. Such a move, if sustained, would represent a significant departure from decades of adherence to the agreement and could set a troubling precedent in international water relations.For Pakistan, the stakes are existential. Agriculture accounts for a substantial portion of its economy and employs a large segment of its population. Any disruption in river flows directly impacts food security, rural livelihoods, and overall economic stability. The potential for desertification of fertile lands due to reduced water availability is a growing concern among policymakers and experts alike.
In response, Pakistan faces the urgent task of pursuing both diplomatic and domestic strategies. Internationally, it may seek recourse through forums such as the World Bank, a guarantor of the treaty, and other legal mechanisms under international law. Domestically, there is a pressing need to enhance water management practices, invest in storage infrastructure, and improve efficiency in irrigation systems to mitigate vulnerabilities.The Indus basin has long been a source of life and sustenance for millions. Preserving its equitable use requires not only adherence to legal agreements but also a commitment to cooperation and restraint. As water scarcity intensifies globally, the management of shared rivers like IWT-1960 will remain a critical test of regional stability and international norms.
— The writer is Professor of Politics and IR at International Islamic University, Islamabad.
